Over 50 years of international research establishes Philosophy for Children (P4C) as a powerful pedagogy for realising the kinds of cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes that transform lives and learning.
P4C Research Evidence
Robust independent research shows regular Philosophy for Children (P4C) supports intellectual, social and emotional gains, especially for disadvantaged learners. These gains are reflected in quantitative measures of attainment in reading, writing and maths, but also in qualitative teacher observations which establish improvements in reasoning, communication, respect and engagement (EEF, 2015; EEF. 2021). Longitudinal studies also suggest that gains made through regular philosophical enquiry are sustained over time (Topping and Trickey, 2007; 2010).
Systematic reviews and studies across continents and contexts confirm benefits in higher-order thinking, social skills, emotional development as well as ethical awareness and classroom culture (e.g. Ab Wahab, 2022). These findings are consistent with extensive evidence from Thoughtful’s award programmes and project work.
There is compelling evidence that children’s spoken language is a key predictor of their life chances (DFE 2010). But there is also evidence that mitigating the impact of socio-economic disadvantage on learning and life chances involves relationships, metacognition and self-regulated learning and social, emotional and mental health, as well as language development and comprehension (Rowland, 2021). We argue that all these elements are cultivated through an approach to philosophical thinking that focuses on the creation of a community while exploring topics that matter and are meaningful to people.
FAQ
What evidence is there for the cognitive benefits of P4C?
In one of the first large controlled studies of its kind, two researchers at the University of Dundee (Trickey and Topping 2007) researched the impact of P4C and showed that collaborative philosophical enquiry was associated with better cognitive and metacognitive skills in the intervention group. The data showed that this was particularly significant for children who were socially disadvantaged. The control group did not gain in any aspect.
They completed a two-year follow-up to this research and:
“the significant pre-post cognitive ability gains in the experimental group in primary school were maintained towards the end of their second year of secondary school …The control group showed an insignificant but persistent deterioration in scores from pre- to post-test to follow-up.“
“The study provides evidence of maintained cognitive gains from collaborative philosophical inquiry, transferred across contexts.”
The Educational Endowment Foundation carry out research across a range of initiatives, and their meta-analysis of interventions that improve learning for disadvantaged children include the development of metacognition and self-regulation giving pupils 7 months additional progress, oral language interventions (communication and language initiatives in EYFS) add 6 months progress and those that develop collaborative learning add 5 months progress to disadvantaged children’s learning. Philosophical enquiry develops all these skills. EEF Toolkit and Early Years EEF Toolkit.
In 2015 SAPERE took part in the EEF large-scale randomised controlled trials to see if SAPERE P4C impacted on children’s attainment in maths and literacy.
- The results showed free school meal children who took part made 4 months’ additional progress in reading, 3 months’ in maths and 2 months in writing.
- Overall, Key Stage Two pupils who took part in P4C made two additional months’ progress in reading and maths
In 2005 the SHINE Trust commissioned research into the impact of P4C on primary children’s reasoning and higher-order and independent thinking in The Better Thinking for Better Learning project. They found:
- 88% of Year 6 children improved on their predicted grade in Key Stage 2 English SATs, with 94% achieving or exceeding their predicted grade.
- 26% of children who took part in P4C throughout the project achieved level 5 in reading, with a further 69% achieving level 4.
- 63% of children exceeded the teacher’s prediction in Key Stage 2 Maths SATs, with 24% achieving level 5 and 64% achieving level 4.
This pattern – stronger evidence for reasoning skills than for standardised test scores – is echoed by the wider research base, and has held up as the evidence base has expanded over time. A 2018 meta-analysis of 10 studies found P4C had a moderate overall effect on cognitive outcomes, with a notably larger effect on reasoning skills specifically (d = 1.06) than on reading comprehension (d = 0.28). A more recent 2025 meta-analysis – pooling 33 international studies and over 4,500 children using a more rigorous three-level statistical model and pre-registered methodology – found the same pattern: a moderate-to-large effect on children’s cognitive development overall, with particularly strong effects on critical thinking, reasoning, and creativity, but a small, statistically non-significant effect on reading comprehension specifically. In other words, the most consistent finding across the field – one that has held up as the evidence base has more than tripled in size – is that P4C builds children’s capacity to reason and question, its founding aim, rather than moving standardised literacy and numeracy scores directly. The more recent review also found these benefits held consistently across grade levels, from primary through secondary school, challenging the idea that philosophical enquiry only suits older or already high-attaining pupils.
What evidence is there for non-cognitive benefits of P4C?
The Trickey and Topping 2007 report also showed that children in intervention groups reported increased self-esteem and showed evidence of ‘significant reduction in dependency and anxiety and of greater self-confidence’, particularly for girls (Trickey & Topping 2007).
In addition to the cognitive benefits listed above for the 2015 EEF Research teachers and pupils reported that P4C had a positive influence on wider outcomes, such as pupils’ confidence to speak, listening skills, and self-esteem.
The EEF followed up the research in 2021 in a larger-scale trial. This research took place and concluded during Covid. A large minority of schools involved in the trial withdrew from the process, impacting the results, and although they did not find the same level of impact in maths and reading scores in 2021 compared to 2015, they found that Teachers involved felt P4C had positively impacted on a range of pupils’ social competencies, most notably on oracy and reasoning:
- their respect for other pupils’ opinions (96% of teachers),
- their ability to question and reason (91% of teachers),
- and their ability to express views clearly (93% of teachers).
- 89% of teachers agreed that P4C had positively impacted on listening skills.
Where schools were implementing P4C, teachers and pupils found it enjoyable, engaging and that it encouraged pupils to share opinions in a non-judgmental way, finding it particularly beneficial for English as an Additional Language pupils, those who lacked confidence or Special Educational Needs pupils.
In addition, no negative impacts were found, confirming that schools can reap all the benefits of P4C – in terms of social, emotional, behavioural and well-being outcomes – without reducing reading or maths outcomes.
Training and support was judged by teachers to be of high quality; they felt strongly that it had enabled them to facilitate P4C sessions effectively in their school.
In 2021 Siddiqui and Gorard (the EEF researchers) carried out further research and the results showed that P4C benefits
“self-esteem, self-confidence, active classroom engagement, enjoyment in learning, critical thinking, creativity, commitment, social-communication skills, social-emotional attitudes and motivation to learn.”
The post-intervention comparisons show that pupils who received the P4C intervention were ahead of their counterparts in the comparison schools, and this was generally more so for those pupils live in relative poverty (free school meal-eligible children).
The latest systematic literature review taking in research around the world (Ab Wahab et al 2022) showed improvements in higher-order thinking skills and impact on citizenship, where young people are
- confident to provide their thinking without being judged,
- developing mutual respect and tolerance and an increase in social justice – being able to empathise with marginalised groups.
The review also showed improvements in affective skills and classroom behaviour, and a culture of thinking that permeates not just the class but the school / learning environment as well.
The review showed that philosophy for children helped children engage with their learning, and helped students with their emotional understanding and stress.
In 2025 Kevesk, Jamshid & Maredpour, Alireza & Mahmoudi, Armin published research into the effect of P4C on working memory and frustration tolerance on primary school children. The findings demonstrated that P4C significantly enhances working memory and enhances frustration tolerance in primary school-aged students. These results further highlight the program’s effectiveness in promoting cognitive and emotional development, underscoring its potential as a valuable educational intervention.
Does P4C support mental health and wellbeing?
Thoughtful are currently working with Manchester University to study the impact on P4C on mental health and psychological wellbeing outcomes in particular. However, there is some evidence out already that has considered the impact of P4C on psychological outcomes. After all, P4C founder Matthew Lipman said:
“The aim of a thinking skills program such as P4C is not to turn children into philosophers or decision makers, but to help them become more thoughtful, more reflective, more considerate and more reasonable individuals.” (Lipman, Sharp, & Oscanyan, 1980, p. 15).
Why this research?
Although there are numerous theoretical rationales for why P4C might lead to improved wellbeing, empirical research is currently limited – but can often be found in previous studies as ‘other effects’.
A broad definition of wellbeing encompasses positive emotion, engagement, relationships, purpose, autonomy, and personal growth. Causal mechanisms from P4C for good mental health may involve enhancing frustration tolerance (Kevesk, Jamshid & Maredpour, Alireza & Mahmoudi, Armin, 2025), becoming comfortable with uncertainty (Birch, 2020; Michalik, 2022), following structured dialogic rules (Cassidy et al., 2018; Siddiqui et al., 2019), influencing students’ internal locus of control (Ominde, 2024), and practising meaning-making of important topics (Lamb, 2015). A further suggestion is wider interactional changes in classroom environment (Trickey & Topping, 2004), such as the epistemic humility of teachers leading to flatter power hierarchies in class, have been suggested (Quickfall, 2025).
Previous research
In 2012, Liverpool Primary Care Trust (PCT) had identified a need for supporting wellbeing and mental health in schools to complement the mental health provision being commissioned. As a partnership between organisations, such as Sustainability, Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) and School Improvement Liverpool, a pilot programme introducing P4C as a whole-school approach was established to enable schools to become a catalyst for pupils, teachers and school communities to develop skills for improving well-being and increasing community resilience. A summary of the findings can be found in Philosophy for Children Theories and Praxis in Teacher Education.
In 2018 a chapter was published by Thoughtful Trainer Dr Rhiannon Love in the book Family Resemblances. Current Trends in Philosophy for Children. (pp. 105-117) Taking it Slow. Enhancing Well-being through Philosophy for Children.
“We live today in times of accelerating change, where speed is often equated with progress and success. There is a growing desire amongst educators to counter this current bias towards performativity and results/data-driven education. One example of this is a growing interest in what is termed ‘Slow Schooling’ or ‘Slow Pedagogy’ – which advocates that children not only learn better at a slower pace, but also report a decrease in stress. In the current climate where there are increasing numbers of young people suffering from mental health issues, there is a concern that these needs are not adequately addressed in education. This chapter suggests one possible approach to address and dealing with this current situation, is to embed Philosophy for Children (P4C) into a school’s pedagogy, values and curriculum.”
In 2024 clinical psychologists (Ethier et al) in Canada investigated the use of P4C in the service of self-determination, well-being and mental health in elementary schools, and concluded:
“P4C emerges as a beacon of enlightenment, engaging young minds in profound contemplation of their existence, values, and the world around them. Our research has consistently demonstrated its beneficial impact on children’s well-being by increasing the satisfaction of their need for self-determination while reducing their anxiety levels.”
An earlier study in 2021 (Impact of a Philosophy for Children Intervention on Positive and Negative Indicators of Mental Health in Elementary School Children) by the same authors found:
“Participants in the experimental group showed higher scores in autonomy, when compared to participants in the control group, and participants in the experimental group showed lower anxiety scores, when compared to participants in the control group. Conclusion: Overall, results from this study show that P4C may be a promising intervention to foster greater autonomy in elementary school children, while also improving mental health.”
And during the pandemic they tested using P4C online for an impact on mental health in elementary pupils and concluded that:
“results from this study suggest that in the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, a P4C intervention centered around COVID-19 related themes may be helpful to reduce mental health difficulties (anxiety and inattention symptoms)”
What about the impact of P4C on teachers?
Children are our primary beneficiaries, but we also consider the impact we have on teachers to be of equal importance – one teacher can impact the lives of many children, and philosophical enquiry has benefits for teachers’ pedagogy, their relationship with their students and their own reflective abilities, which can help them in their own lives.
We have been told that our training is “more beneficial than the whole of my teacher training”. And senior leaders have seen it transform teachers: “During this process they have now become one of the strongest, most reflective and impactful members of the teaching staff.” Teachers who learn how to facilitate philosophical enquiry become more reflective in their teaching and their lives, and many stay in the profession longer because “the impact is phenomenal.”
Teachers find it improves not only their classroom pedagogy, but also their relationships with their students and their own reflective abilities.
A paper in 2016 in the Routledge International Handbook of Philosophy for Children states:
“One consequence of the establishment of this kind of classroom ethos is a ‘mirror effect’ (Wikeley, 2000) in which teachers who practise community of inquiry with their students become more reflective, curious and experimental themselves... the community of inquiry is an ideal vehicle for the professional development of teachers, as it provides a forum in which teachers are more likely to question, inquire into, and self-correct their own pedagogical methods and habits.” (Baumfield 2016)
And research carried out in Hong Kong in 2021 on the impact of philosophy for children on teachers’ professional development (Lam C.-M., 2021) showed it increased teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom by engaging in enquiry and dialogic teaching, improving their own reflective practice, transferring strategies to other lessons, identifying and analysing philosophical concepts across the school curriculum and recognising their students capacity for building knowledge through philosophical enquiry.
In 2006 The Northumberland Raising Aspirations in Society (NRAIS) project found that ‘…the Philosophy for Children (P4C) intervention in the form of Community of Enquiry (CoE) has a significant positive impact upon teacher and pupil creativity, builds the confidence of both teachers and pupils and encourages and develops children’s capacity for independent and critical thinking and powers of reasoning. Evidence supported the claim that the Philosophy for Children (P4C) intervention in the form of Community of Enquiry (CoE) is particularly powerful in developing teachers’ planning for use of questions and in encouraging teachers to critically revisit their practice.’
Where can I read more about the worldwide research into P4C?
The IAPC (Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children) maintains a list of research papers on Philosophy for Children. You can also browse the PhilPapers database.
